AI-enhanced flipped classroom design thinking to improve self-efficacy in open distance learning
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.59672/ijed.v6i4.5702Keywords:
AI, Design thinking, Flipped classroom, Self-efficacyAbstract
Self-efficacy is a critical determinant of learner success in Open and Distance Learning (ODL), where limited interaction and tutor-centred instruction may weaken confidence and autonomy. This study examines how progressively scaffolded learning designs improve self-efficacy by comparing a Conventional Tutorial, a Flipped Classroom with Design Thinking (FCDT), and an AI-enhanced FCDT-AI model. Using a within-subjects repeated-measures design, 26 undergraduate ODL students recruited through purposive sampling experienced all three conditions in a counterbalanced sequence. Self-efficacy was measured with a validated 34-item scale, complemented by reflection logs. Quantitative analysis (Greenhouse–Geisser–adjusted repeated-measures ANOVA) showed a significant, monotonic increase in self-efficacy from the Conventional Tutorial to FCDT and FCDT-AI (p < .001). Mean scores rose from 77.79 to 80.99 and 85.05, respectively, with decreasing coefficients of variation indicating more stable confidence under higher scaffolding. Qualitative findings reinforced this progression: students described tutor dependence and uncertainty under the Conventional Tutorial, greater autonomy and structured mastery under FCDT, and the strongest, most consistent confidence under FCDT-AI due to AI-supported guidance. These results demonstrate that structured flipped design-thinking models, strengthened by generative AI scaffolding, can substantially enhance self-efficacy in ODL contexts. Future studies should investigate long-term effects across larger and more diverse learner populations.
Downloads
References
Ahmed, Md. M., Rahman, A., Hossain, Md. K., & Tambi, F. B. (2022). Ensuring learner-centred pedagogy in an open and distance learning environment by applying scaffolding and positive reinforcement. Asian Association of Open Universities Journal, 17(3), 289–304. https://doi.org/10.1108/AAOUJ-05-2022-0064
Akbulut, Y., Saykılı, A., Öztürk, A., & Bozkurt, A. (2023). What if it’s all an illusion? To what extent can we rely on self-reported data in open, online, and distance education systems? The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 24(3), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v24i3.7321
Akhmetzadina, Z. R., Mukhtarullina, A. R., Starodubtseva, E. A., Kozlova, M. N., & Pluzhnikova, Y. A. (2023). Review of effective methods of teaching a foreign language to university students in the framework of online distance learning: international experience. Frontiers in Education, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2023.1125458
Aldossary, K. (2021). Online distance learning for translation subjects: Tertiary level instructors’ and students’ perceptions in saudi arabia. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 96–109. https://doi.org/10.17718/tojde.961821
Algarni, B. (2023). An evaluation of the impact of flipped-classroom teaching on mathematics proficiency and self-efficacy in Saudi Arabia. British Journal of Educational Technology, 54(1), 414–435. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13250
Altunçekiç, A., & Birbudak, T. S. (2023). The determination of history teacher candidates’ distance education self-efficacy belief levels according to different variables. Participatory Educational Research, 10(6), 266–281. https://doi.org/10.17275/per.23.100.10.6
Awi, A., Naufal, M. A., Sutamrin, S., & Huda, M. (2024). Enhancing geometry achievement in pre-service mathematics teachers: The impact of a scaffolded flipped classroom using a learning management system. Journal of Ecohumanism, 3(6), 637–645. https://doi.org/10.62754/joe.v3i6.4035
Aydın, Z., Öztürk, Z., & Çiçek, Z. (2021). Turkish sentiment analysis for open and distance education systems. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 124–138. https://doi.org/10.17718/tojde.961825
Azevedo, R., Bouchet, F., Duffy, M., Harley, J., Taub, M., Trevors, G., Cloude, E., Dever, D., Wiedbusch, M., Wortha, F., & Cerezo, R. (2022). Lessons learned and future directions of metatutor: leveraging multichannel data to scaffold self-regulated learning with an intelligent tutoring system. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.813632
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.
Berg, G. Van Den. (2020). Context matters: Student experiences of interaction in open distance learning. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 223–236. https://doi.org/10.17718/tojde.803411
Bingen, H. M., Steindal, S. A., Krumsvik, R. J., & Tveit, B. (2020). Studying physiology within a flipped classroom: The importance of on‐campus activities for nursing students’ experiences of mastery. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 29(15–16), 2907–2917. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocn.15308
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
Breen, K., Asturias, G., Pena, D., Dotson, M. E., Springate, H., Alvarez, V., Madonna, M., & Ramanujam, N. (2023). Community-centered design thinking as a scalable STEM Learning Intervention. Advances in Enginering Education, 11(2). https://doi.org/10.18260/3-1-1153-36042
Cha, J., & Kim, J. (2020). Effects of flipped learning on the critical thinking disposition, academic achievement and academic self-efficacy of nursing students: A mixed methods study. Journal of Korean Academic Society of Nursing Education, 26(1), 25–35. https://doi.org/10.5977/jkasne.2020.26.1.25
Citrawan, I. W., Widana, I. W., Sumandya, I. W., Widana, I. N. S., Mukminin, A., Arief, H., Razak, R. A., Hadiana, D., & Meter, W. (2024). Special education teachers’ ability in literacy and numeracy assessments based on local wisdom. Jurnal Ilmiah Ilmu Terapan Universitas Jambi, 8(1), 145-157. https://doi.org/10.22437/jiituj.v8i1.32608
Creswell, J. W., & Clark, V. L. P. (2018). Designing and conducting mixed methods research (3rd ed.). SAGE.
Després, J.-P., Julien-Gauthier, F., Jourdan-Ionescu, C., & Bédard-Bruyère, F. (2022). The extra-ordinary music camp: An informal online distance learning approach for children with intellectual and physical disabilities and learning disorders. Frontiers in Education, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2022.913390
Doo, M. Y., & Bonk, C. J. (2020). The effects of self‐efficacy, self‐regulation and social presence on learning engagement in a large university class using flipped Learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 36(6), 997–1010. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12455
Gede Suwardika, Agus Tatang Sopandi, & Indrawan, P. O. (2024). Delopment and validation of a self-efficacy scale for distance learning. Journal of Education Research and Evaluation, 8(4), 584–592. https://doi.org/10.23887/jere.v8i4.84044
Goria, C., & Konstantinidis, A. (2023). A participatory pedagogical model for online distance learning: Ideation and implementation. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 24(1), 145–161. https://doi.org/10.17718/tojde.1082978
Goss-Sampson, M. A. (2022). Statistical Analysis in JASP a Gude for Students (Vol. 16). University of Greenwich.
Herrera, J. P., & Vílchez, A. S. (2021). Students’ perception and academic performance in a flipped classroom model within early childhood education degree. Heliyon, 7(4), e06702. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06702
Ho, T. E. (2025). Outcomes of an integrated STEM with design thinking module on preschoolers’ science process skills. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 23(3), 353–368. https://doi.org/10.1177/1476718X251325675
Kant, N., Prasad, K. D., & Anjali, K. (2021). Selecting an appropriate learning management system in open and distance learning: a strategic approach. Asian Association of Open Universities Journal, 16(1), 79–97. https://doi.org/10.1108/AAOUJ-09-2020-0075
Kara, M. (2022). Open and distance learning vision of higher education institutions in turkey: implications for leadership. Open Praxis, 14(1), 14–26. https://doi.org/10.55982/openpraxis.14.1.480
Latorre-Cosculluela, C., Suárez, C., Quiroga, S., Anzano-Oto, S., Lira-Rodríguez, E., & Salamanca-Villate, A. (2022). Facilitating self-efficacy in university students: an interactive approach with flipped classroom. Higher Education Research & Development, 41(5), 1603–1617. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2021.1937067
Laupichler, M. C., Hadizadeh, D. R., Wintergerst, M. W. M., von der Emde, L., Paech, D., Dick, E. A., & Raupach, T. (2022). Effect of a flipped classroom course to foster medical students’ AI literacy with a focus on medical imaging: a single group pre-and post-test study. BMC Medical Education, 22(1), 803. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-022-03866-x
Li, H. (2023). Effects of a ChatGPT-based flipped learning guiding approach on learners’ courseware project performances and perceptions. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 39(5), 40–58. https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.8923
Li, J., Goei, S., & Huang, R. (2024). Unveiling maker mindsets: A journey of formation and transformation through design thinking-making pedagogy within a lesson study context. Frontiers in Education, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2024.1343492
Lin, H., Hwang, G., Chou, K., & Tsai, C. (2023). Fostering complex professional skills with interactive simulation technology: A virtual reality‐based flipped learning approach. British Journal of Educational Technology, 54(2), 622–641. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13268
Mathew, V., & Chung, E. (2021). University students’ perspectives on open and distance learning (odl) implementation amidst COVID-19. Asian Journal of University Education, 16(4), 152. https://doi.org/10.24191/ajue.v16i4.11964
Mohd Amin, M. R., Ismail, I., & Sivakumaran, V. M. (2025). Revolutionizing education with artificial intelligence (ai)? challenges, and implications for open and distance learning (ODL). Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 11, 101308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2025.101308
Olney, T., Li, C., & Luo, J. (2021). Enhancing the quality of open and distance learning in China through the identification and development of learning design skills and competencies. Asian Association of Open Universities Journal, 16(1), 61–78. https://doi.org/10.1108/AAOUJ-11-2020-0097
Ozaydin Ozkara, B., & Ibili, E. (2021). Analysis of students’ e-learning styles and their attitudes and self-efficacy perceptions towards distance education. International Journal of Technology in Education and Science, 5(4), 550–570. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijtes.200
Purnadewi, G. A. A., & Widana, I. W. (2023). Improving students’ science numeration capability through the implementation of the PBL model based on local wisdom. Indonesian Journal of Educational Development (IJED), 4(3), 307-317. https://doi.org/10.59672/ijed.v4i3.3252
Puspaningsih, A. R. (2020). Penerapan biology interactive notebooks dalam flipped classroom untuk meningkatkan hasil belajar biologi (Implementation of biology interactive notebooks in flipped classroom to improve biology learning outcomes). Indonesian Journal of Educational Development, 1(3), 401-409. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4284509
Putra, I. M. Y. T. (2021). Implementasi pembelajaran flipped classroom berbasis strategi diferensiasi untuk meningkatkan keterampilan berpikir kritis peserta didik (Implementation of flipped classroom learning based on differentiation strategies to improve students' critical thinking skills). Indonesian Journal of Educational Development, 2(3), 461-471. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5681318
Santoso, H. B., Riyanti, R. D., Prastati, T., S., FA. T. H., Susanty, A., & Yang, M. (2022). Learners’ online self-regulated learning skills in indonesia open university: implications for policies and practice. Education Sciences, 12(7), 469. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci12070469
Saritepeci, M., & Yildiz Durak, H. (2024). Effectiveness of artificial intelligence integration in design-based learning on design thinking mindset, creative and reflective thinking skills: An experimental study. Education and Information Technologies, 29(18), 25175–25209. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-12829-2
Shi, J., Liu, W., & Hu, K. (2025). Exploring how ai literacy and self-regulated learning relate to student writing performance and well-being in generative ai-supported higher education. Behavioral Sciences, 15(5), 705. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15050705
Suwardika, G., Sopandi, A. T., & Indrawan, I. P. O. (2024). Model flippped classroom design thinking terdiferensiasi berbantuan Artificial Intelligence (AI): Untuk mengembangkan literasi digital, keterampilan berpikir kreatif, dan efikasi diri. Nilacakra. https://books.google.co.id/books?id=Za8tEQAAQBAJ
Suwardika, G., Sopandi, A. T., Indrawan, I. P. O., & Masakazu, K. (2024). A flipped classroom with whiteboard animation and modules to enhance students’ self-regulation, critical thinking and communication skills: a conceptual framework and its implementation. Asian Association of Open Universities Journal, 19(2), 135–152. https://doi.org/10.1108/AAOUJ-10-2023-0115
To, S., & Liu, X. (2021). Outcomes of community-based youth empowerment programs adopting design thinking: A quasi-experimental study. Research on Social Work Practice, 31(7), 728–741. https://doi.org/10.1177/10497315211001442
Widana, I. W. & Ratnaya, I. G. (2021). Relationship between divergent thinking and digital literacy on teacher ability to develop HOTS assessment. Journal of Educational Research and Evaluation, 5(4), 516-524. https://doi.org/10.23887/jere.v5i4.35128
Widana, I. W., Sumandya, I. W., Citrawan, I. W. (2023). The special education teachers’ ability to develop an integrated learning evaluation of Pancasila student profiles based on local wisdom for special needs students in Indonesia. Kasetsart Journal of Social Sciences, 44(2), 527–536. https://doi.org/10.34044/j.kjss.2023.44.2.23
Wolcott, M. D., Castleberry, A. N., Johnson, C., Pick, A. M., & Persky, A. M. (2023). Lessons from using design thinking to develop the 2021 aacp teachers’ seminar. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 87(2), ajpe8990. https://doi.org/10.5688/ajpe8990
Xiao, J., Alibakhshi, G., Zamanpour, A., Zarei, M. A., Sherafat, S., & Behzadpoor, S.-F. (2024). How ai literacy affects students’ educational attainment in online learning: Testing a structural equation model in higher education context. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 25(3), 179–198. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v25i3.7720
Yang, C.-M., & Hsu, T.-F. (2020). Integrating design thinking into a packaging design course to improve students’ creative self-efficacy and flow experience. Sustainability, 12(15), 5929. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12155929
Yavuzalp, N., & Bahçivan, E. (2020). The online learning self-efficacy scale: Its adaptation into turkish and interpretation according to various variables. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 31–44. https://doi.org/10.17718/tojde.674388
Yildiz Durak, H. (2022). Flipped classroom model applications in computing courses: Peer‐assisted groups, collaborative group and individual learning. Computer Applications in Engineering Education, 30(3), 803–820. https://doi.org/10.1002/cae.22487
Zhao, L. (2021). The differentiate effect of self-efficacy, motivation, and satisfaction on pre-service teacher students’ learning achievement in a flipped classroom: A case of a modern educational technology course. Sustainability (Switzerland), 13(5), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13052888
Zhou, M., & Peng, S. (2025). The usage of ai in teaching and students’ creativity: The mediating role of learning engagement and the moderating role of ai literacy. Behavioral Sciences, 15(5), 587. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15050587
Zhu, X., & Chikwa, G. (2021). An exploration of China-Africa cooperation in higher education: Apportunities and challenges in open distance learning. Open Praxis, 13(1), 7. https://doi.org/10.5944/openpraxis.13.1.1154
Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Self-efficacy: An essential motive to learn. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 82–91. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1016
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Gede Suwardika, Agus Tatang Sopandi, I Putu Oktap Indrawan, Kadek Masakazu
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material.
